Role of Schedules of Reinforcement

Role of Schedules of ReinforcementTo what extent are memorandums of support much than secure rules governing which repartees exit be built? Illust run your tell with radical and apply research examples.I am writing this prove in sight to illust roll the role of catalogues of living base and employ research examples provide evidence that registers of backing are more than just rules governing which solutions will be reinforced.A schedule of reward is specify as a rule that describes a contingency of backing, those environ amiable arrangements that instruct conditions by which carriages will produce reinforcement (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007). There are deuce basic types in a schedule of reinforcement a straight reinforcement schedule (CRF schedule) is nonpareil in which each occurence of a answer is reinforced, and an intermittent reinforcement schedule where each occurence of the response is not reinforced rather, responses are occasion onlyy or intermitten tly reinforced (Miltenberger, 2008).Ferster and Skinner (1957) sensvas discordant types of intermittent reinforcement schedules and described four basic types in this category fixed ratio, variable quantity ratio, fixed legal separation, variable interval. In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, a specific or fixed way out of responses must occur forwards the reinforcer is delivered in a variable ratio (VR) schedule, words of a reinforcer is based on the enumerate of responses that occur, but in this case, the number of responses needed for reinforcement varies each time, close to an average number in a fixed interval (FI) schedule, the interval of time is fixed, or stays the same each time in a variable interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer is delivered for the front response that occurs after an interval of time has elapsed (Miltenberger, 2008).There are in landition some variations on the basic intermittent schedules of reinforcement a) the schedules of de rivative reinforcement of pass judgment of responding and, b) the state-of-the-art schedules of reinforcement. Differential reinforcement provides an intervention for sort troubles associated with rate of response and that means that it is a variation of ratio schedule deli very(prenominal) of the reinforcer is contingent on responses occuring at a rate each lavishlyer than or lower than some pre hardened criterion (Cooper, 2007). The reinforcement of responses elevateder than a predetermined criterion is called contrastiveial reinforcement of high rates (DRH) when responses are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterion, the schedule provides differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL). There is in any case the differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD) schedule that provides reinforcement at the devastation of a predetermined time interval when the number of responses is less than a criterion that is gradually lesseningd crossways time interval s based on the individuals deed (Cooper, 2007).Progessive schedules of reinforcement by contrast, systematically thin each serial reinforcement opportunity independent of the players demeanour (Cooper, 2007), Progressive ratio (PR) and progressive interval (PI) schedules of reinforcement diverge schedule requirements using a) arithmetic overtures to add a constant amount to each sequent ratio or interval or b) geometric progressions to add successively a constant proportion of the preceding ratio or interval (Lattal Neef, 1996).Additionally, applied behavior analysts combine the elements of continuous reinforcement, the four schedules of reinforcement, differential reinforcement of various rates of responding and extinction to form compound schedules of reinforcement. co-occurrent schedules of reinforcement occur when a) ii or more contingencies of reinforcement b) operate independently and simultaneously c)for dickens or more behaviors (Cooper, 2007). Discriminative sche dules of reinforcement consist of a) multiple schedules -present devil or more basic schedules of reinforrcement in an alterating, usually random, sequence the basic schedules within the multiple schedule occur successively and independently and a discriminative input is jibe with each basic schedule the foreplay is present as long as the schedule is in effect- and b) chained schedules -the multiple and chained schedules halt two or more basic schedule requirements that occur successively and have a discriminative foreplay correlated with each independent schedule (Cooper, 2007).Nondiscriminative schedules consist of a) mixed schedules - engagement an identical office to multiple ones but, without discriminative stimuli- and b) tandem schedules -identical to chained schedules, but alike without the discriminative stimuli (Cooper, 2007).Now through basic and applied research examples from all types of schedules of reinforcement, it is going to be shown the role of schedules of reinforcement the schedules of reinforcement play a major role in a behavior stir program, and too in the acquisition and maintenance of a behavior. In the field of cartoon of Kirby and Shields (1972), a systematic measure of dislodges in academic response rate and the true through a more direct approach to academic performance was conducted. The study was designed to measure the combined effect of an adjusting fixed-ratio schedule of agile kudos and prompt doness feedback on the arithmetic response rate of a seventh- grade student and to measure possible collateral changes in study behavior.The study was divided into four phases baseline, intervention 1, reversal, treatment 2. development an adjusting fixed-ratio schedule, delivery of reinforcement was initially given for every two problems terminate then, the experimenter gradually subjoind the units of work or number of problems completed before delivering reinforcement. The results demonstrated the stiffness of the fixed-ratio schedule of praise and immediate correctness feedback in increasing the subjects arithmetic response rate and associated attending behavior. When students rate of correct problem solving was increased through systematic reinforcement, incompatible behaviors of non-attending decreased. It was also noted that during reversal, when all praise and immediate correctness feedback was withheld, the subject maintain a much higher level of arithmetic achievement and attending behavior than before treatment 1. The adjusting ratio schedule of reinforcement support contact with the student during early phases requiring small units of work, it requires no extra move during later phases when large units of work are assigned.In the study of De Luca and Holborn (1992), the cause of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement on pedaling a stationary play bicycle were imaged. A changing-criterion design was used in which each successive criterion was increased over mean per formance rate in the previous phase by approximately 15%. The participants were 3 weighty and 3 nonobese boys. The experimental phases were baseline, VR-first subphase (the VR schedule of reinforcement was introduced after a persistent baseline had been achieved), VR-second subphase (stability had been achieved in the first subphase), VR- ternary subphase (stability was achieved for the second subphase), indemnification to baseline and return to VR third subphase.All participants had systematic increases in their rate of pedaling with each VR value, marrow that the larger the variable ratio, the higher the rate of response. The results indicated that the rate of employ can be increased using a VR schedule of reinforcement. The introduction of the initial VR subphase of the changing-criterion design produced marked increases in the rate of exercise for all subjects.Rasmussen and Oneill (2006), examined the set up of fixed-time reinforcement schedules on problem behavior of stud ents with emotional-behavioral dis secerns in a clinical day-treatment schoolroom setting. The participants were third elemental-aged students and the dependent variable for all 3 participants was the frequency of verbal disruptions. The study employed an ABAB withdrawl design, alternating between baseline and FI conditions -verbal praise and pats on the arm were provided, with a final brief schedule cutting off phase for each participant.All participants exhibited variable but relatively high rates during baseline. Implementation of FT schedules resulted in immediate, substantial, and stable decreases for all participants. The results of this study demonstrate the use of FT schedules and their implementation in a day-treatment schoolroom setting with children with clinically diagnosed emotional or behavioral disorders. These procedures were sound in reducing disruptive verbal behavior and these reductions were hold while the FI schedules infrawent initial thinning.The effec tiveness of fixed-time schedules has also been evaluated through data on both separate and inappropriate responses. In the study of Roane, Fisher and Sgro (2001), fixed-time schedules were used in order to reduce destructive behavior but also, to increase adaptive behavior. The participant was a 12-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder and traumatic capitulum injury. There were two conditions control condition and FT condition with the expulsion of the FT schedule of reinforcement, the FT condition was identical to the control condition. During the FT condition, increases in two adaptive responses were observed, even though neither response was reinforced through direct contingencies. Similarly, decreases in destructive behavior were obtained below the FT schedule. The results suggest that, in addition to suppressing inappropriate behavior, FT schedules whitethorn also increase and stabilize adaptive behavior.capital of Texas and Soeda (2008) , validated the use of fixed-time reinforcer delivery with typically developing population. A fixed-time teacher trouble was used to decrease off- proletariat behavior in two third-grade boys. An ABAB was used with two phases baseline (the teacher interacted with the boys in her usual manner) and noncontingent reinforcement-NCR (the teacher provided care on an FT schedule). The findings indicated that NCR was an effective strategy for reducing the off-task behaviors of both boys, as immediate and sustained reductions in the percentage of intervals with off-task behavior were observed.Van Camp, Lerman, Kelley, Contrucci and Vondran (2000), evaluated the efficacy of noncontingent reinforcement with variable interval schedules in reducing problem behavior maintained by social consequences, comparing the effects of VT and FT reinforcement schedules with 2 individuals who had been diagnosed with moderate to impish mental retardation. Baseline and treatment conditions -with FT and VT se ssions- were conducted in both participants. Although previous studies on the use of NCR as treatment for problem behavior have primarily examined FT schedules, results of this study indicated that VT schedules were as effective as FT schedules in reducing problem behavior.Carr, Kellum and Chong (2001), examined the effects of fixed-time and variable-time schedules on responding with 2 adults with mental retardation. Multielement and reversal designs were used to compare the effects of FT and VT schedules previously maintained on variable-ratio reinforcement schedules. The target behavior for the first participant was defined as making a penci mark on his name and placing the paper into the receptable. The target behavior for the second participant was defined as picking up a paper clip and drop it in the receptable. The experimental phases were baseline, FR 1 reinforcement, VR 3 reinforcement, FT, VT. The results showed that both FT and VT schedules were equally effective in redu cing the target behaviors.Wright and Vollmer (2002), used a treatment package that involved an adjusting differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate responding (DRL) schedule, response blocking and prompts in order to reduce speedy eating. The participant was a 17-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with profound mental retardation. The experimental phases consisted of baseline and treatment condition, where an adjusting DRL procedure was introduced, along with blocking and prompts. The DRL intervals were determined by calculating the average IRT from previous sessions. The results showed that the treatment package was effective in increasing the IRTs between each attempted bite of food. The treatment package also resulted in an increase in the proscribe side-effects (increase in the levels of SIB and tantrums). However, the treatment continued despite these side-effects, which eventually decreased.In the study of Dietz and Repp (1973), a differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD) schedule was used in order to decrease classroom misbehavior. The procedure that was followed was that reinforcement was produced when responding was less than a limit for a period of time, rather than when a response followed a specified period of no responding. Three experiments were conducted. In the first experiment DRD schedule was implemented to reduce the talking-out behavior of one 11-year old boy, classified as trainable mentally retarded (TRM) in a special classroom. The second experiment involved the reduction of talk-outs in a group of ten TRM students in an also special classroom, and the third experiment involved the use of a DRD schedule to reduce the verbal behavior of a group of 15 high school students in a regular class.The results demonstrated the effectiveness of DRD schedules in reducing classroom disruption both in individual and in group behaviors. In addition, the success with both TRM students and with high school students suggests the efficacy of DRD schedules across widely divergent groups. In the present study the use of confirming reinforcement suggests also a nonpunitive method of classroom control.Roane, Lerman and Vorndran (2001), tried to examine if the reinforcing stimuli can be differentially effective as response requirements increase by evaluating responding below increasing schedule requirements via progressive-ratio schedules and behavioral economic analyses. In experiment 1 (reinforcer assessment), four individuals with developmental disabilities, who had been referred for the assessment and treatment of severe behavior problems, participated. The findings showed that one stimulus was associated with greater response persistence beneath increasing schedule requirements for all participants. Results also suggested that progressive schedules allow a relatively expeditious examination of shifts in reinforcer preference or value under increasing schedule requirements.In experiment 2, the parallelism between respon ding under progressive schedules and levels of destructive behavior under various reinforcement-based treatments was examined in order to evaluate the utility of the reinforcer assessment. Three interventions were selected noncontingent reinforcement, DRA and DRO. Results indicated that the high-preference stimuli determine via this assessment were more likely to reduce problem behavior or increase adaptive behavior than stimuli identified as less preferred. In summary, results of this study suggest that stimuli identified as similarly preferred via a commonly used preference assessment were differentially effective under increasing schedule requirements. Additionally, stimuli that were more effective under progressive schedules were more likely to produce decreases in problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement.The influence of concurrent reinforcement schedules on behavior change without the use of extinction was examined by Hoch, McComas and Thomson (2002). Two respon ses were measured problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement, and task completion in three children with autism. Moreover, the maintenance of behavior change was evaluated under conditions of increased response requirements and rawboned schedules of reinforcement. The results showed that immediate and sustained decreases in problem behavior and increases in task completion occurred when task completion produced both negative reinforcement and approaching to preferred activities and problem behavior continued to result in negative reinforcement. The findings demonstrated that concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be arranged to decrease negatively reinforced problem behavior and increase an adaptive substitute(a) response without the use of escape extinction.tiger and Hanley (2004), described a multiple-schedule procedure to reduce ill-timed requests, which involved providing children with two distinct continuous signals that were correlated with periods in which te acher attention was either available or unavailable. Cammilleri, Tiger and Hanley (2008), conducted a study in order to assess the efficacy of a classwide application of the multiple-schedule procedure described by Tiger and Hanley when implemented by teachers during instructional periods in three elementary classrooms. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of a classwide multiple-schedule procedure when implemented by teachers in a private elementary school classroom.Conclusively, schedules of reinforcement are not only rules that govern which responses will be reinforced they are substantial components of a behavior change program. CRF schedules are used in the acquisition of a behavior -when a person is learning a behavior or engaging in the behavior for the first time. Once the person has acquired or learned the behavior, an intermittent reinforcement schedule is used so that the person continues to engage in the behavior -maintenance of behavior (Miltenberger, 2008). In th is way, schedules of reinforcement help in the progression to naturally occurring reinforcement, which is a major goal for most behavior change programs.It was shown that schedules of reinforcement can be applied effectively in different settings, behaviors, populations. They have been used to decrease inappropriate behaviors such as rapid eating (Wright Vollmer, 2002) or classroom misbehavior (Dietz Repp, 1973) to increase appropriate behaviors such as arithmetic response rate and attending behavior (Kirby Shields, 1972). They have also been applied in both typically developing children (e.g. Austin Soeda, 2008), and in children with behavior problems (e.g. Rasmussen ONeill, 2006). Schedules of reinforcement can have great effects in a behavior change program, but it is also very important to know how and when to apply the most appropriate schedule or a combination of them in a specific behavior.ReferencesAustin, J. L., Soeda, J. M. (2008). Fixed-time teacher attention to dec rease off-task behaviors of typically developing third graders. Journal of apply manner Analysis, 41, 279-283.Cammilleri, A. P., Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2008). Developing stimulus control of young childrens requests to teachers Classwide applications of multiple schedules. Journal of apply behavior Analysis, 41, 299-303.Carr, J. E., Kellum, K. K., Chong, I. M. (2001). The reductive effects of noncontingent reinforcement Fixed-time versus variable-time schedules. Journal of Applied conduct Analysis, 34, 505-509.Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.), Schedules of reinforcement (pp. 304-323). Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.De Luca, R. V., Holborn, S. W. (1992). Effects of a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule with changing criteria on exercise in obese and nonobese boys. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 671-679.Dietz, S. M., Repp, A. C. (1973). 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The effects of fixed-time reinforcement schedules on problem behavior of children with emotional and behavioral disorders in a day-treatment classroom setting. Journal of Applied Behavior Anal ysis, 39, 453-457.Roane, H. S., Fisher, W. W., Sgro, G. M. (2001). Effects of a fixed-time schedule on aberrant and adaptive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 333-336.Roane, H. S., Lerman, D. C. and Vorndran, C. M. (2001). Assessing reinforcers under progressive schedule requirements. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 145-167.Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2004). Developing stimulus control of preschooler mands An analysis of schedule-correlated and contingency-specifying stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37, 517-521. Cited in Cammilleri, A. P., Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2008). Developing stimulus control of young childrens requests to teachers Classwide applications of multiple schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 299-303.Van Camp, C. M., Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., Contrucci, S. A., Vorndran, C. M. (2000). Variable-time reinforcement schedules in the treatment of socially maintained problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 545-557.Wright, C. S., Vollmer, T. R. (2002). Evaluation of a treatment package to reduce rapid eating. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 89-93.